Loyalty (, zhng) is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because the most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. Confucianism advocates love with distinctionsone always loves one's family first and then moves outward. Analects. The concept of heaven (tian), unique in Zhou cosmology, was compatible with that of the Lord on High (Shangdi) in the Shang dynasty. The research was conducted using the following databases: PubMed, Scopus, CINHAL, PsycINFO and Web of Science, without restrictions of language and year of publication. [134] The New Life Movement in the early 20th century was also influenced by Confucianism. RELIGION AS A PERCENTAGE OF WORLD POPULATION: 0.1 percent OVERVIEW. Confucianism is a philosophy developed in 6th-century BCE China, which is considered by some a secular-humanist belief system, by some a religion, and by others a social code. [85], Since the 2000s, there has been a growing identification of the Chinese intellectual class with Confucianism. "[141] Matthew Sommers has also indicated that the Qing dynasty government began to realise the utopian nature of enforcing the "cult of chastity" and began to allow practices such as widow remarrying to stand. FOUNDED: c. 1050-256 b.c.e. [142] Starting from the Han period, Confucians began to teach that a virtuous woman was supposed to follow the males in her family: the father before her marriage, the husband after she marries, and her sons in widowhood. [74] While the Shang identified Shangdi as their ancestor-god to assert their claim to power by divine right, the Zhou transformed this claim into a legitimacy based on moral power, the Mandate of Heaven. At the cultural level, for instance, Confucianism, its institutions, and its rituals offer bulwarks against atomization and individualism. What was happening in China when Confucius lived? Rn (Chinese: ) is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being altruistic. The name Confucius, a Latinized combination of the surname Kong with an honorific suffix "Master" ( fuzi ), has also come to be . The Lunyu ( Analects ), the most-revered sacred scripture in the Confucian tradition, was probably compiled by the succeeding generations of Confucius's disciples. [citation needed], Other movements, such as Mohism which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more theistic idea of Heaven. Going beyond the Master, they theorised the oneness of production and reabsorption into the cosmic source, and the possibility to understand and therefore reattain it through meditation. [65], Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. By Confuciuss time, however, the feudal ritual system had been so fundamentally undermined that the political crises also precipitated a profound sense of moral decline: the centre of symbolic control could no longer hold the kingdom, which had devolved from centuries of civil war into 14 feudal states. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Rn (, 'benevolence' or 'humaneness') is the essence of the human being which manifests as compassion. [41], Regarding personal gods (shn, energies who emanate from and reproduce the Tin) enliving nature, in the Analects Confucius says that it is appropriate (; ; y) for people to worship ( jng) them,[45] though through proper rites (; ; l), implying respect of positions and discretion. Should the ruler be surrounded by xiaoren as opposed to junzi, his governance and his people will suffer due to their small-mindness. These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past. Roy Tseng, drawing on the New Confucians of the twentieth century, argues that Confucianism and liberal democracy can enter into a dialectical process, in which liberal rights and voting rights are rethought into resolutely modern, but nonetheless Confucian ways of life. [149][150][151] Many traditional commentators and modern scholars have debated over the precise meaning of the passage, and whether Confucius referred to all women or just certain groups of women. Inspired by the statesmanship of Zhougong, Confucius harboured a lifelong dream to be in a position to emulate the duke by putting into practice the political ideas that he had learned from the ancient sages and worthies. [86] Another modern proponent of the institutionalisation of Confucianism in a state church is Jiang Qing. [122], Joseph Chan defends the compatibility of Confucianism with both liberalism and democracy. In accordance with the Master, they identified mental tranquility as the state of Tian, or the One ( Y), which in each individual is the Heaven-bestowed divine power to rule one's own life and the world. [129][131], Confucianism influenced the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was attracted to the philosophy because of its perceived similarity to his own. indeed!" Disillusioned with the culture, opposing scholars, and religious authorities of the time, he began to preach an ethical interpretation of traditional Zhou religion. [citation needed], In South Korea, there has long been criticism. [29] The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 ("What does Tian ever say? . Although it is an exaggeration to characterize traditional Chinese life and culture as Confucian, Confucian ethical values have for well over 2,000 years served as the source of inspiration as well as the court of appeal for human interaction between individuals, communities, and nations in the Sinitic world. For example, South Korean writer Kim Kyong-il wrote an essay[when?] Japanese Confucian Philosophy. [89], Other forms of revival are salvationist folk religious movements[90] groups with a specifically Confucian focus, or Confucian churches, for example the Yidan xuetang () of Beijing,[91] the Mengmutang () of Shanghai,[92] Confucian Shenism ( Rzng Shnjio) or the phoenix churches,[93] the Confucian Fellowship ( Rjio Dotn) in northern Fujian which has spread rapidly over the years after its foundation,[93] and ancestral temples of the Kong kin (the lineage of the descendants of Confucius himself) operating as Confucian-teaching churches.[92]. Especially the works of Liu Zhi such as Tinfng Dinl () sought to harmonise Islam with not only Confucianism but also with Taoism and is considered to be one of the crowning achievements of the Chinese Islamic culture.[133]. 11th century bce), who was said to have helped consolidate, expand, and refine the feudal ritual system. [108] As Bell puts it, he defends "democracy at the bottom, experimentation in the middle, and meritocracy at the top. [22]:7, The term "Traditionalist" has been suggested by David Schaberg to emphasize the connection to the past, its standards, and inherited forms, in which Confucius himself placed so much importance. [30] Rn, translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. The junzi disciplines himself. Muslims make up about 1.8 percent of China's population, accounting for around twenty-two million people . Sometimes "exemplary person." [162][163] But using a broader definition, such as Frederick Streng's characterisation of religion as "a means of ultimate transformation",[164] Confucianism could be described as a "sociopolitical doctrine having religious qualities. [citation needed] The emperors of China were considered agents of Heaven, endowed with the Mandate of Heaven. Despite its literal meaning, any righteous man willing to improve himself may become a junzi. [43] Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao: "the way things are" or "the regularities of the world",[40] which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of physis, "nature" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order. In modern times, waves of opposition and vilification showed that Confucianism, instead of taking credit for the glories of Chinese civilisation, now had to take blame for its failures. Such duties are also extended to the dead, where the living stand as sons to their deceased family. Streng, Frederick, "Understanding Religious Life," 3rd ed. In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain the material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. In the New Culture Movement, Lu Xun criticised Confucianism for shaping Chinese people into the condition they had reached by the late Qing dynasty: his criticisms are expressed metaphorically in the work "Diary of a Madman", in which traditional Chinese Confucian society is portrayed as feudalistic, hypocritical, socially cannibalistic, despotic, fostering a "slave mentality" favouring despotism, lack of critical thinking and blind obedience and worship of authority, fuelling a form of "Confucian authoritarianism" which persists into the present day. [22]:190197 Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: Three of them use r. The story of Confucianism does not begin with Confucius. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. [30] This transformation of the self may be extended to the family and society to create a harmonious fiduciary community. [97], Confucianists historically tried to proselytize to others,[98] although this is rarely done in modern times. [157] The Jesuits, including Matteo Ricci, saw Chinese rituals as "civil rituals" that could co-exist alongside the spiritual rituals of Catholicism. Confucius created the model of junzi, gentleman, which may be achieved by any individual. [44] This is shown in the story where Duke Jing of Qi asks Confucius about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony. Confucianismincluding the most pro-authoritarian scholars such as Xunzihas always recognised the Right of revolution against tyranny. Some South Koreans believe Confucianism has not contributed to the modernisation of South Korea. Confuciuss response was to address himself to the issue of learning to be human. They ought to ask what makes political hierarchies just and use these criteria to decide the institutions that deserve preservation, those that require reform, and those that need radical transformation. [64] The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check. In later centuries, Confucianism heavily influenced many educated martial artists of great influence, such as Sun Lutang,[citation needed] especially from the 19th century onwards, when bare-handed martial arts in China became more widespread and had begun to more readily absorb philosophical influences from Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism. After the An Lushan rebellion, patronage for Buddhism and its institutions fell to a new southern gentry class, formed through the massive population shift southward as people fled the war-torn north. While Jiang's model is closer to an ideal theory than Bell's proposals, it represents a more traditionalist alternative. Another meaning of rn is "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself. Li embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. The founder of Confucianism, named Confucius, lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E. [44] The Confucian classic Xiaojing ("Book of Piety"), thought to be written around the Qin-Han period, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xio. Most scholars attribute the origins of this idea to futurologist Herman Kahn's World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond. Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (Analects 7.1), he did produce a number of new ideas. The aim of this study is to analyze the influence of Confucianism on health behaviors, health outcomes and medical decisions. In the 16th and the 17th centuries, the earliest European arrivals in China, the Christian Jesuits, considered Confucianism to be an ethical system, not a religion, and one that was compatible with Christianity. In Seiji Naya and Akira Takayama, eds. Confucius considered himself a transmitter of cultural values inherited from the Xia (c.20701600BCE), Shang (c.16001046BCE) and Western Zhou dynasties (c.1046771BCE). [112] This system aligns with what Harvard historian James Hankins calls "virtue politics", or the idea that institutions should be built to select the most competent and virtuous rulersas opposed to institutions concerned first and foremost with limiting the power of rulers.[113]. This idea is developed further in the Great Learning, and is tightly linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei (; ; w wi): the less the king does, the more gets done. The Five Bonds are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend. [30] Jol Thoraval studied Confucianism as a diffused civil religion in contemporary China, finding that it expresses itself in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth (Di ), the sovereign or the government (jn ), ancestors (qn ) and masters (sh ). Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius (c. 372-289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving the principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. Though closer to a philosophy than a true religion, Confucianism was a way of life for ancient Chinese people, and it continues to influence Chinese culture today. [105], In Just Hierarchy, Daniel Bell and Wang Pei argue that hierarchies are inevitable. These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred. Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. Tongdong Bai presents an in-between solution by proposing a two-tiered bicameral system. What will you consider the first thing to be done?" They hold the power to define the hierarchy of divinities, by bestowing titles upon mountains, rivers and dead people, acknowledging them as powerful and therefore establishing their cults. Besides the waning Zhou ritual system, what may be defined as "wild" ( y) traditions, or traditions "outside of the official system", developed as attempts to access the will of Tian. Second, and most important, is serving the interests of the people (and the common good more broadly). [44], Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic. [17], He found order and understanding in his . If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things. In Japan, Confucianism stands, along with Buddhism, as a major religio-philosophical teaching introduced from the larger Asian cultural arena at the dawn of civilization in Japanese history, roughly the mid-sixth century. [120], Another key question is whether Confucian political thought is compatible with liberalism. Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. In this context, people need notand should notwant to flatten hierarchies as much as possible. The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, Yu! This system depended on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts. This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honour to the whole family. This "cult of chastity" accordingly condemned many widows to poverty and loneliness by placing a social stigma on remarriage. Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism,[1] is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a way of life. Both the theory and practice of Confucianism have indelibly marked the patterns of government, society, education, and family of East Asia. [25] Five Classics (, Wjng) and the Confucian vision said Zi-lu. By the 6th century BCE, the power of Tian and the symbols that represented it on earth (architecture of cities, temples, altars and ritual cauldrons, and the Zhou ritual system) became "diffuse" and claimed by different potentates in the Zhou states to legitimise economic, political, and military ambitions. William Theodore De Bary, Waiting for the Dawn: A Plan for the Prince (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 91110. [54] The Five Constants are:[54]. The Taiping Rebellion described Confucianism sages as well as gods in Taoism and Buddhism as devils. [42] He wrote in the Analects (7.23) that tin gave him life, and that tin watched and judged (6.28; 9.12). Omissions? [6] According to American philosopher Herbert Fingarette's conceptualisation of Confucianism as a philosophical system which regards "the secular as sacred",[7] Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between religion and humanism, considering the ordinary activities of human lifeand especially human relationshipsas a manifestation of the sacred,[8] because they are the expression of humanity's moral nature (xng ), which has a transcendent anchorage in Heaven (Tin ). The ultimate goal is that the government behaves much like a family, the junzi being a beacon of filial piety. The petty person is egotistic and does not consider the consequences of his action in the overall scheme of things. This did not exclude martial arts culture. [100], Confucianism, despite supporting the importance of obeying national authority, places this obedience under absolute moral principles that curbed the willful exercise of power, rather than being unconditional. Zh () is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, in the behaviors exhibited by others. The Chinese imperial examination system started in the Sui dynasty. A global perspective is needed to universalize its concerns. Many of Confucianism's followers also are believers in. [46], Answering to a disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family (a popular saying), in 3.13 Confucius says that in order to appropriately pray gods one should first know and respect Heaven. [158] The Dominicans and Franciscans argued that Chinese ancestral worship was a form of idolatry that was contradictory to the tenets of Christianity. [139][140], Confucianism "largely defined the mainstream discourse on gender in China from the Han dynasty onward. Confucianism is one of the most influential religious philosophies in the history of China, and it has existed for over 2,500 years. He, Baogang & Warren, Mark (2020). The Song dynasty Confucian Cheng Yi stated that: "To starve to death is a small matter, but to lose one's chastity is a great matter. Although the earliest dynasty confirmed by archaeology is the Shang dynasty (18th12th century bce), the historical period that Confucius claimed as relevant was much earlier. Since social harmony is of utmost importance, without the proper rectification of names, society would essentially crumble and "undertakings [would] not [be] completed. Though Confucius is sometimes credited with founding Confucianism, he said that he was interpreting the philosophy of Zhougong, the duke of Zhou, rather than creating new doctrine. Tongdong Bai, for instance, argues that while Confucian political thought departs from the "one person, one vote" model, it can conserve many of the essential characteristics of liberalism, such as freedom of speech and individual rights. It focuses on innate human goodness and the importance of interpersonal human relationships. Also, the Hong Kong Confucian Academy, one of the direct heirs of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, has expanded its activities to the mainland, with the construction of statues of Confucius, Confucian hospitals, restoration of temples and other activities. In so doing he attempted to redefine and revitalize the institutions that for centuries had been vital to political stability and social order: the family, the school, the local community, the state, and the kingdom. Although Confucius never realized his political dream, his conception of politics as moral persuasion became more and more influential. Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Although only 2% are adherents of Christianity, it is becoming a popular alternative. Such efforts effectively expanded the Malthusian limits to population growth in preindustrial China, even in the absence of productivity gains. Reciprocity or responsibility (renqing) extends beyond filial piety and involves the entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers. [84] Confucius amended and recodified the classical books inherited from the Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties, and composed the Spring and Autumn Annals. The book, a conversation between Confucius and his disciple Zeng Shen, is about how to set up a good society using the principle of xio.[67]. The first spiritual leader of the church is the scholar Jiang Qing, the founder and manager of the Yangming Confucian Abode ( Yngmng jngsh), a Confucian academy in Guiyang, Guizhou. [147][148] Finally, scholars have discussed the attitudes toward women in Confucian texts such as Analects. [51][52], Kelly James Clark argued that Confucius himself saw Tin as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as "Heavenly Supreme Emperor", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view.
Most Wanted Baseball Cards 1990,
Sarah Henderson Actress Wiki,
How Much Did Celebrities Get Paid On Match Game,
Articles C
